Extreme Sports, Athletic Skill With Pronounced Risk:Worldeduhelper

Extreme Sports, Athletic Skill With Pronounced Risk,
nontraditional sports and activities that require participants to combine athletic skill with pronounced risk. Most extreme sports are not true competitive sports because the main challenge is not imposed by another athlete or opposing team, but by the inherent difficulty of the activity. Extreme sports allow and encourage individual creativity in the innovation of new maneuvers and in the stylish execution of existing techniques.

Because extreme sports enthusiasts place themselves in dangerous situations, controlling risk is vital. Before enthusiasts attempt risky activities, they must know their own physical abilities and understand how well they can block the natural instinct of fear. Extreme sports enthusiasts also must recognize the physical limits of their equipment. Participants should have experience in whatever activity they are taking to an extreme level, and must know what they will do in an emergency.

II  HOW EXTREME SPORTS ARE DEVELOPED,
Some of the most popular sports that can have extreme elements are extreme skiing, snowboarding, mountain biking, in-line skating, and white-water kayaking (see canoeing). In these activities, extreme athletes exceed traditional safety limitations to create new disciplines in the sport. For example, people who engage in extreme skiing make dangerous runs down mountains over uncharted terrain. The enhanced danger posed by cliffs, crevasses, and extremely steep slopes elevates traditional snow skiing to an extreme level. Likewise, extreme free rock climbing, or rock climbing without ropes, is generally considered more dangerous than traditional climbing methods, which typically incorporate protection in the form of a climbing partner and roping system.

Some extreme sports combine the techniques and physical skills of two or more sports, often mainstream sports that were once considered extreme. One of the best examples of this sort of transition is found with skysurfing, which first became popular in the 1990s. The sport combines skydiving and snowboarding. Experienced parachutists perform acrobatic stunts on boards similar to snowboards. Individually, skydiving and snowboarding were once considered extreme. And snowboarding’s own development owed much to the sports of skateboarding and surfing, which were considered nontraditional when they were first popularized in the 1960s.

III  EXTREME SPORTS FOR INDIVIDUALS, 

Many extreme sports are performed by individuals, either for the inherent thrill of the activity or for this thrill combined with competition. Bungee jumping, BASE jumping, skysurfing, and street luge are just a few of the extreme sports designed for individuals.

Bungee jumping is leaping from a fixed location such as a crane, platform, bridge, or cliff and breaking the fall with a bungee cord—an elastic-type rope—that is attached to the ankles. Jumps take place from heights of 25 to 200 m (80 to 650 ft). After the jumper begins falling, the bungee cord pays out behind the jumper’s feet. When it is fully extended, the cord breaks the jumper’s fall, stretching to minimize the jolt of the stop. The United States Bungee Association (USBA) estimates that more than 7 million bungee jumps have been made since the late 1980s, making bungee jumping one of the most popular extreme sports. Bungee jumping is most commonly done from specially designed platforms and under the supervision of a licensed company. It is considered one of the least dangerous activities of the extreme sports.

In BASE jumping, parachutists jump from artificial and natural structures at heights between 90 and 1100 m (300 and 3600 ft). (The name BASE comes from buildings, antennas, spans [bridges], and earth [cliffs and waterfalls]—the four launching points for jumpers.) Because the launch heights are low compared to those in traditional skydiving, the parachutes used in BASE jumping are specially designed to open quickly. BASE jumping is considered one of the most dangerous of all extreme sports. One danger is that a jumper’s parachute may not open fast enough. Another is that wind can easily blow a jumper into a rock face or another nearby surface. Most law enforcement agencies prohibit BASE jumping, but even where the activity is legal, only competent skydivers should attempt jumps.

In skysurfing, an expert skydiver performs acrobatic stunts while free-falling from about 4000 m (13,000 ft). The skysurfer stands upright on a board similar to a snowboard. The board is attached to the feet with special bindings that allow the skysurfer to detach from the board if necessary. The board’s aerodynamic properties enable skysurfers to move horizontally and to do loops, turns, and similar feats in midair. Around 1100 m (3600 ft), the skysurfer deploys a parachute. Skysurfing is dangerous because the board is difficult to control. Skysurfers must concentrate on using their bodies and the board to avoid spins that can render them unconscious or disoriented during a fall. This spinning phenomenon can also cause the lines of the parachute to tangle and the parachute to deploy improperly.

Street luge is a ground-based extreme sport similar to traditional luge (which is held on an ice-covered course). Street lugers race on paved roads, reaching speeds of more than 110 km/h (70 mph). A street luge, or rail, is a narrow aluminum beam that is 41 cm (16 in) wide and 2.6 m (8.5 ft) long. The rail rides on small wheels similar to those on skateboards. Street lugers lie face up in a stiff, feet-first posture that maximizes aerodynamic efficiency. The rail has no braking system or steering mechanism, so riders direct the rail using slight shifts of weight or pressure from the feet. Lugers race against the clock to complete a course in the fastest possible time. Extreme speeds make street luge dangerous, and the risks increase because only a helmet and abrasion–resistant clothing protect the racer in a crash. Because there are no permanent racecourses, street luge is often practiced on the open road, where automobile traffic can also pose a threat.

In almost every extreme sport, a governing body sponsors competitions. These organizations include the U.S. Bungee Association; the International Pro BASE Circuit (IPBC), which governs BASE jumping; the World Freestyle Federation (WFF), which governs skysurfing; and the Road Racers Association for International Luge (RAIL), which governs street luge.

A different sort of extreme sports competition is the annual X Games, with events in a wide range of sports, just as the Olympic Games feature competition in many mainstream sports. And just as the Olympics occur in summer and winter, so do the X Games. The X Games take place over a week and are sponsored by the ESPN cable television network.

The first X Games (then called the Extreme Games) were held in 1995 in Rhode Island. The Summer X Games involve more than 400 athletes competing in more than 25 alternative sports, including bicycle stunt riding, aggressive in-line skating, skateboarding, skysurfing, snowboarding, and street luge. The Winter X Games, created in 1997, feature mountain-bike racing on snow, ice climbing, and other winter events.

IV  EXTREME SPORTS FOR TEAMS, 

Not all extreme sports consist of individual competition. One type of team competition is adventure racing. Adventure racers travel in teams across rugged terrain without using motorized equipment. Races may involve skiing, hiking, sea kayaking, and many other activities. All members of a team must stay together during a race. Adventure racing is considered by some to be the ultimate test of athletic ability and mental strength because participants must engage in high levels of athletic activity in harsh environments. Enthusiasts are often injured and frequently lose their way during the course of a competition.

The precursors to today’s adventure races were endurance races such as triathlons and extreme long-distance running events. Two of today’s most popular adventure racing events are the Raid Gauloises and the Eco-Challenge. Created in 1989 by French journalist Gerard Fusil, the Raid Gauloises is a grueling two-week adventure race in which five-person teams cross rugged and remote terrain. The inaugural Raid was held in New Zealand, and subsequent races have been staged in Costa Rica, Madagascar, Borneo, and Chile. The race has five separate stages designed to fit each location’s unique terrain. Stages may require horseback riding, white-water paddling, mountain climbing, running, skydiving, or hiking. Each year, about half the teams that enter the Raid are able to complete the race. French teams have dominated the competition since its inception.

The Eco-Challenge adventure race was first organized in 1995 by Mark Burnett, a member of the first American team to compete in the Raid Gauloises. The Eco-Challenge is a 10-day, 600-km (370-mi) event. The first Eco-Challenge was held in Utah. Like the Raid, the Eco-Challenge features five-member teams and has several stages. Typical activities in the Eco-Challenge are mountain biking, sea kayaking, long-distance hiking, and skiing. Before each year’s race, Eco-Challenge athletes participate in an environmental service project, to illustrate the power of teamwork and promote outdoor activities that have minimal effect on the environment.

V  HISTORY, 

Some sociologists say that extreme sports are similar to vision quests or other traditional rites of passage common in some cultures. In many traditional cultures, rites of passage are severe physical ordeals during which adolescents experience intense personal growth. Initiates often leave their families and undergo a lengthy seclusion during the event. Some modern observers believe that extreme sports enthusiasts seek the same sort of experience by undertaking risky activities in small, closely knit groups.

It is difficult to determine exactly when the term extreme sports came to refer to the modern sports discussed in this article, but many believe it can be traced to the early 1970s, when rock climbing and marathon running—then considered extreme—gained popularity. Several reasons have been cited for the growth of extreme sports since that time.

Extreme sports may have gained popularity in the late 20th century as a reaction to the increased safety of modern life. Lacking a feeling of danger in their everyday activities, people may have felt compelled to seek out danger or risk.

Another reason for increased participation in extreme sports is enhanced sports technology. For example, the invention of sticky rubber-soled climbing shoes and artificial climbing walls broadened the appeal of rock climbing. And advances in ski design allowed more skiers to attempt extreme feats previously thought impossible.

Some observers credit television and movies for helping to popularize extreme sports. Television coverage of competitions and events has brought extreme sports and their participants more attention. As more people become aware of extreme sports, the activities gain more enthusiasts. One result of the growing interest is that those who pride themselves on participating in challenging, cutting-edge activities are constantly searching for new ways to test themselves. This ensures the continuing development of newer extreme sports.

Facts And Figures About China,

Facts And Figures About China,
officially the People's Republic of China (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo), country in East Asia, the world’s largest country by population and one of the largest by area, measuring about the same size as the United States. The Chinese call their country Zhongguo, which means “Central Country” or “Middle Kingdom.” The name China was given to it by foreigners and is probably based on a corruption of Qin (pronounced “chin”), a Chinese dynasty that ruled during the 3rd century bc.


China proper centers on the agricultural regions drained by three major rivers—the Huang He (Yellow River) in the north, the Yangtze (Chang Jiang) in central China, and the Zhu Jiang (Pearl River) in the south. The country’s varied terrain includes vast deserts, towering mountains, high plateaus, and broad plains. Beijing, located in the north, is China’s capital and its cultural, economic, and communications center. Shanghai, located near the Yangtze, is the most populous urban center, the largest industrial and commercial city, and mainland China’s leading port.

More than one-fifth of the world’s population—1.3 billion people—live in China. More than 90 percent of these are ethnic Han Chinese, but China also recognizes 55 national minorities, including Tibetans, Mongols, Uighurs, Zhuang, Miao, Yi, and many smaller groups. Even among the ethnic Han, there are regional linguistic differences. Although a common language called Putonghua is taught in schools and used by the mass media, local spoken languages are often mutually incomprehensible. However, the logographic writing system, which uses characters that represent words rather than pronunciation, makes it possible for all Chinese dialects to be written in the same way; this greatly aids communication across China.


In ancient times, China was East Asia’s dominant civilization. Other societies—notably the Japanese, Koreans, Tibetans, and Vietnamese—were strongly influenced by China, adopting features of Chinese art, food, material culture, philosophy, government, technology, and written language. For many centuries, especially from the 7th through the 14th century ad, China had the world’s most advanced civilization. Inventions such as paper, printing, gunpowder, porcelain, silk, and the compass originated in China and then spread to other parts of the world.


China’s political strength became threatened when European empires expanded into East Asia. Macao, a small territory on China’s southeastern coast, came under Portuguese control in the mid-16th century, and Hong Kong, nearby, became a British dependency in the 1840s. In the 19th century internal revolts and foreign encroachment weakened China’s last dynasty, the Qing, which was finally overthrown by Chinese Nationalists in 1911. Over the course of several decades, the country was torn apart by warlords, Japanese invasion, and a civil war between the Communists and the Nationalist regime of the Kuomintang, which established the Republic of China in 1928.

In 1949 the Chinese Communist Party won the civil war and established the People’s Republic of China (PRC) on the mainland. The Kuomintang fled to the island province of Taiwan, where it reestablished the Nationalist government. The Nationalist government controlled only Taiwan and a few outlying islands but initially retained wide international recognition as the rightful government of all of China. Today, most countries recognize the PRC on the mainland as the official government of China. However, Taiwan and mainland China remain separated by different administrations and economies. Therefore, Taiwan is treated separately in Encarta Encyclopedia. In general, statistics in this article apply only to the area under the control of the PRC.

After coming to power in 1949, the Communist government began placing agriculture and industry under state control. Beginning in the late 1970s, however, the government implemented economic reforms that reversed some of the earlier policies and encouraged foreign investment. Although China remains a poor country by world standards, the economy has grown dramatically as a result of the reforms of the 1980s and 1990s.

In 1997 Hong Kong was transferred from Britain to China under an agreement that gave the region considerable autonomy. Portugal recognized Macao as Chinese territory in the late 1970s and later negotiated the transfer of Macao’s administration from Portugal to China. Macao, too, was guaranteed a special degree of autonomy.

II  LAND AND RESOURCES, 

The total area of China is 9,571,300 sq km (3,695,500 sq mi) including inland waters. The country stretches across East Asia in a broad arc that has a maximum east-west extent of about 5,000 km (about 3,000 mi). From the country’s northernmost point to the southern tip of Hainan Island, the north-south extent is about 4,000 km (about 2,500 mi). China borders Russia, Mongolia, and North Korea on the north; Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan on the west; India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar (Burma), Laos, and Vietnam on the south; and the Pacific Ocean and its extensions on the east.

China’s vast territory encompasses a great diversity of landscapes. Generally speaking, the land forms three giant steps that descend from high mountains, plateaus, and great basins in the west to a central band of lower mountains, hills, and plateaus, then to lowlands, plains, and foothills near the eastern coast. Deserts and steppes lie across the northwest and north central parts of China.

A  Natural Regions, 

According to a Chinese geographic classification scheme, the country may be divided into seven large natural regions: Northeast China, North China, Subtropical East Central China, Tropical South China, Inner Mongolian Grassland, Northwest China, and the Tibetan Plateau (Qing Zang Gaoyuan).



Agriculture,
China has 7 percent of the world’s arable land with which to support more than 20 percent of the world’s population. Over the centuries, the Chinese have built irrigation projects to the extent that almost half of cultivated land is now irrigated. China long had a food deficit, but as a result of new irrigation projects, improved farming techniques since 1949, and agricultural reforms since the late 1970s, China now produces enough grain to provide a basic diet for its large population. In lean years, however, the country occasionally must import grains. China's agriculture is also a major source of raw materials for the country’s industries. Chinese cotton, for example, is a key material supplied to the garment industry.

In 1998 China produced the world’s largest share of grains, meats, cotton, and peanuts. China ranked second in production of tea, sugar cane, and rapeseed (used to make lubricants and cooking oil) and fourth in the production of soybeans. The country also produced most of the world’s mulberry silk cocoons.

Organization of Agricultural Activity, 
In the 1950s the Communist government organized 800 million rural people into about 52,000 people's communes. The communes received production targets from the state and ensured that these targets were met. Each commune was divided into about 16 production brigades, which were further divided into about 7 production teams usually consisting of 100 to 250 people. Each level above the individual could hold land, tools, and other production materials under communal ownership, and each carried out a range of production activities.

Under the commune system, it was possible to conduct large-scale experimentation with scientific farming, to plant crops in areas with the most favorable soil and other natural conditions, and to develop irrigation and drainage on an efficient scale. Although land was collectively owned, each rural household usually had access to a small private plot, which it was free to use as it pleased. Both production teams and individual households were also given autonomy to market products after official targets were met.

In the early 1980s, in an effort to increase agricultural production, the government restructured the agricultural sector. The system of communes and production brigades was largely dismantled, and the household became the principal unit of agricultural production. Under the so-called household contracting and responsibility system, each household, after contracting with local authorities to produce its quota of specified crops, was free to sell any additional output on the free market. A major limitation of this system is its difficulty in achieving economies of scale. This refers to the economic principle that an individual household produces a smaller amount than a larger farm, but has some of the same basic expenses (for plows, for example) and therefore has a higher relative production cost. On a voluntary basis, some households have organized themselves into groups for product processing, marketing, and regional cooperation.

Density, Worldeduhelper

Density,
amount of a substance contained within a specific area. In physics, density is the ratio of the mass of a substance to its volume, and it can be calculated by dividing the mass by the volume. Density is often expressed in units such as grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) or pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3).

The density of a substance can vary under different conditions. Substances expand and contract as their temperature changes, and as a result their density also changes. Precise measurements of density therefore include the temperature at which they were taken. For example, 1 cu cm of water at 4°C (39°F) weighs 1 g, so water’s density at that temperature is 1 g/cm3. Hot air balloons are able to fly because the density of air changes as its temperature changes. The balloon rises because the heated air inside its bag is less dense than the cooler air outside. Pressure also affects the density of gases. If a given amount of gas is contained within a smaller volume, its density increases. Air at sea level, for example, is denser than air at the top of Mount Everest because the air pressure at sea level is higher and squeezes the air into a smaller volume.

Scientists often indicate the density of a substance by using another measurement called specific gravity. Specific gravity is the density of a substance divided by the density of another substance that is used as a standard. For solids and liquids, water at 4°C (39°F) is usually the standard. Gold has a density of 19.3 g/cm3, so its specific gravity is 19.3 g/cm3 divided by 1 g/cm3 (the density of water at 4°C), or 19.3.

Density can be measured in a number of ways. Solid objects can be weighed to determine their mass and then immersed in a liquid to determine their volume. The volume of liquid displaced by the object is equal to the object’s volume, and the mass divided by the volume is its density. The density of a liquid may be determined similarly. The liquid’s mass can be found by first weighing an empty container, then weighing the container with the liquid in it, and then subtracting the empty weight from the full weight. The liquid’s volume may be determined by instruments similar to the transparent measuring cups used in cooking. Gases may be weighed in airtight containers of known volume and weight. Since gases are more sensitive to changes in temperature and pressure than are liquids or solids, the temperature and pressure must be included in any measurement of the density of a gas.

The term density is also used in many other ways. Population density, for example, is the number of people living within a certain area. Photographic density refers to the blackness of an image on film or on a photographic plate. Particle density is the number of particles in a given volume divided by that volume. Charge density is the total electric charge contained in a volume divided by that volume.

Academic Degree, Title Granted By A College Or University,

Academic Degree,  Title Granted By A College Or University,
usually signifying completion of an established course of study. Honorary degrees are conferred as marks of distinction, not necessarily of scholarship; some, such as D.Litt. (doctor of letters), are generally honorary in the United States.

II  HISTORY, 

Institutions of higher learning have granted degrees since the 12th century. The word itself was then used for the baccalaureate and licentiate, the two intermediate steps that led to the certificates of master and doctor, requisites for teaching in a medieval university. During the same period, honorary degrees were sometimes conferred by a pope or an emperor. In England, the archbishop of Canterbury, by an act passed during the reign of King Henry VIII, acquired the authority to grant honorary Lambeth degrees.

During the Middle Ages, the conferring of a doctorate also allowed the recipient to practice the profession in which the certificate was awarded; this condition still holds true for the legal and medical professions in European countries, such as France, in which the government controls the universities. In the United States, however, the doctor's degree in medicine and law in itself is only a measure of academic attainment; the holder of the degree of M.D., for example, cannot practice in the medical profession until he or she has passed a qualifying examination and received a license.

III  EUROPEAN DEGREES, 

In Germany and at most Continental universities, only the doctor's degree is conferred, except in theology, in which the licentiate, or master's degree, is also presented. Granting of the doctorate is contingent upon the acceptance of a dissertation and the passing of examinations. The baccalaureate, or bachelor's degree, is usually not a university degree in Europe. In France, it is acquired by passing a state examination at the completion of secondary education; the only university-conferred baccalaureate is that awarded by the faculty of law.

The University of Cambridge and the University of Oxford in England grant the bachelor's degree after the satisfactory completion of a 3-year course. Since the 18th century these universities have also given tripos, or examinations for honors. A candidate for graduation must pass all parts of the tripos for a particular subject in order to qualify for an honors degree. The master's degree in arts or science is granted after a further period of residence and study and the payment of fees. Other English universities grant the master's degree only after a candidate has passed a series of examinations and presented an approved thesis. Various doctorates are awarded for distinguished scholarly work or given honoris causa to prominent public figures.

IV  U.S. DEGREES, 

The most commonly granted degrees in the U.S. are the B.A., or bachelor of arts, and the B.S., or bachelor of science, both given generally after the completion of a 4-year course of study and sometimes followed by a mark of excellence, such as cum laude, with praise; magna cum laude, with great praise; or summa cum laude, with highest praise. The master's degree is granted after one or two years of postgraduate work and may require the writing of a thesis or dissertation. The doctorate requires two to five years of postgraduate work, the writing of a thesis, and the passing of oral and written examinations. In the mid-1990s U.S. institutions of higher learning annually granted about 1.2 million bachelor's degrees, some 387,000 master's degrees, and 43,000 doctor's degrees. The most familiar degrees are shown in the accompanying table.

V  ACADEMIC COSTUME, 

The academic dress worn at degree-granting ceremonies consists of a long, black, full-cut gown, and a mortarboard, a stiff square-shaped cap with a tassel. The tassel is either black or of the color indicating the field of study, such as blue for philosophy, purple for law, or scarlet for theology. Some also wear a hood lined with colored silk indicating the graduate's institution and decorated with velvet strips to designate the field of study. The bachelor's gown, usually of cotton, has pointed sleeves. The master's gown, of cotton, silk, or worsted, has oblong sleeves. The doctor's gown, generally of silk, has colored velvet facings down the front. The bell-shaped sleeves are decorated with three similarly colored velvet bands.

K2, The Border Between China And Jammu And Kashmīr,

K2, The Border Between China And Jammu And Kashmīr,
also Mount Godwin Austen, mountain peak in the Karakoram Range of the western Himalayas, straddling the border between China and Jammu and Kashmīr, a territory claimed by India and Pakistan. Pakistan currently controls the portion where K2 lies. K2, rising 8,611 m (28,251 ft), is the second tallest mountain in the world. Only Mount Everest (8,850 m/29,035 ft), also in the Himalayas, is taller. K2 is an almost regular cone of ice and limestone resting on a granite base. In 1856 T. G. Montgomerie of the Survey of India measured the mountain and named it “K2” to denote it as one of 35 summits in the Karakoram Range. In 1861 the peak was unofficially renamed Mount Godwin Austen, after British soldier and topographer Henry Haversham Godwin Austen, the second European to visit the area. Several local names, including Chogori,Lambha Pahar,Dapsang, and Kechu (K2), are also used to identify the peak. Eight expeditions to K2 were made between 1892 and 1954. On July 31, 1954, Achille Compagnoni and Lino Lacedelli, two members of an Italian expedition led by Ardito Desio, made the first successful ascent to the mountain's summit.

Liberty/Freedom, How Freedom Takes Place,

Liberty/Freedom, How Freedom Takes Place,
 right of individuals to act as they choose. In this sense, it is frequently called individual liberty. The term is also employed in connection with the achievement of sovereignty by a people; when so used, it is called national liberty. Although in these traditional senses liberty may be specifically civil or political, the modern concept further connotes a generalized body of rights, such as the right to economic opportunity and education.

II  RIGHTS AND RESTRAINTS, 

Because completely unrestricted freedom of action would make peaceful human existence impossible, some restraints on freedom of action are necessary and inevitable. Virtually all codes of action recognize that basic limitation. Liberty is defined in such codes as the right of individuals to act without restraint as long as their actions do not interfere with the equivalent rights of others; acts that do violate the rights of others are rejected as license.

The nature and extent of the restraints to be imposed and the selection of the means of enforcing them have been important problems for philosophers and lawmakers throughout history. Almost all the solutions finally arrived at have recognized the fundamental need for a government, meaning an individual or group of individuals empowered to impose and enforce whatever restraints are deemed necessary. In modern times, great emphasis has also been placed on the need for laws to define the nature and extent of these restraints. The philosophy of anarchism is an exception; it objects to all governments as evil in themselves and substitutes an idealized society in which social restraint is achieved through individual observance of high ethical principles.

A perfect balance between the right of an individual to act without undue interference and the need of the community to restrain freedom of action has often been projected in theory but has never been achieved. The restraints imposed throughout most of history have been oppressive. History has been described as society's progress from a state of anarchy, through periods of despotism during which liberty was nonexistent or restricted to one privileged group, to a state of liberty for every individual under democratic governments; history has thus been shaped by the natural desire of all people to be free.

III  DISSEMINATION OF LIBERTIES, 

In antiquity, liberty meant national freedom; slavery was considered a necessary institution of society. Liberty in medieval times related primarily to social groups seeking to wrest certain privileges from the sovereigns against whom they contended for power. This kind of struggle resulted in the Magna Carta, imposed in the 13th century on John, king of England, by a group of barons; the document has great significance in the progress of human liberty. As the Middle Ages came to an end, the Renaissance raised problems of intellectual freedom, challenging the established dogma of the Catholic church; later still the Reformation further promoted ideas of religious freedom and freedom of conscience (see Religious Liberty).

Three great revolutions helped to define individual liberty and ensure its preservation. In 17th-century England, the Glorious Revolution was the culmination of several hundred years of gradual imposition of judicial and legislative restraints upon the monarchy. The English Bill of Rights, adopted by the Parliament in 1689, established representative government in England.

The American Revolution of 1776 joined the problems of achieving individual liberty with those of creating a new state. The Declaration of Independence issued by the American revolutionists reflected centuries of struggle for freedom in England. The second great charter of liberty to issue from the American Revolution was the U.S. Constitution. In its first ten amendments, known as the Bill of Rights, the Constitution established guarantees of civil rights.

The French Revolution of 1789 destroyed the feudal system in France and established representative government. In the Enlightenment, the body of thought that molded the thinking of the leaders of the French Revolution, liberty was defined as a natural right of man, a right to act without interference from any source but nevertheless requiring voluntary submission to necessary limitations in order that the benefits of organized social existence might be enjoyed. Challenging the theory of the divine right of kings to rule, this new theory held that the source of all governmental power was the people, and that tyranny began when the natural rights of men were violated. From the French Revolution came the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which served as a model for most of the declarations of liberty adopted by European states in the 19th century.

IV  MODERN PROBLEMS, 

Since these revolutions, the principal problem with respect to national liberty has arisen in connection with the struggles of small states and colonial areas to be free from foreign political or economic control and to achieve full sovereignty. Closely related to this problem has been that arising from the efforts of national or racial minorities, such as the French residents of Québec, Canada, to win political and cultural autonomy within a country.

With respect to individual liberty in the modern era, the problem has been one of preserving and extending civil rights, such as freedom of speech and freedom of the press (see Civil Rights and Civil Liberties; Press, Freedom of the; Speech, Freedom of). As nations grew in size and social complexity, governments claimed greater powers to restrain individuals and groups, extending these powers over wider spheres. Those who criticize this development believe that it has gone so far as to threaten the very existence of individual liberty. Others believe that only if government is granted such powers can the complex problems of an increasingly automated, mobile, and populous world be solved. Most important, governments must be more concerned with individuals and groups that are actively demanding full exercise of the rights that constitute liberty in the 20th century.

A challenge to traditional concepts of liberty was offered by the Russian Revolution of 1917. The Soviet state that resulted held, in accordance with Marxist theory on which it was based, that all previous codes of liberty were ideologies of the ruling classes or of classes aspiring to power, and did not benefit the vast majority of the population. True liberty was possible only by the elimination of class exploitation. The success of the revolution raised hopes for a new era of human freedom. But the subsequent evolution of a terrorist dictatorship under Joseph Stalin led many people to assume that socialism, which is based on collective ownership of the means of production, leads inevitably to dictatorship.

Other menaces to liberty arose in the first half of the 20th century in the form of the totalitarian governments of Italy, Germany, and Spain. In these countries civil liberties were destroyed, the rights of the individual were completely subordinated to the requirements of the government, and those who did not agree with these policies were terrorized into submission. Freedom was restored in Italy and to West Germany (now part of the united Federal Republic of Germany) at the end of World War II, and to Spain in 1975, after the death of the Spanish dictator Francisco Franco.

Canadian Federation of Labour (CFL),

Canadian Federation of Labour (CFL),
 national organization of labor unions in Canada from 1982 to 1997. It was founded in 1982 by building-trade unions that broke away from the Canadian Labour Congress (CLC). For most of its history the CFL represented over 200,000 workers, about 6 percent of the total union membership in Canada. The CFL was disbanded as a central labor body in 1997. An earlier, unrelated national labor organization called the Canadian Federation of Labour existed from 1907 to 1927. Unlike the CFL of the 1980s and 1990s, which had close ties to the union movement in the United States, the earlier CFL was a nationalist organization formed in opposition to United States-based unions.

The original CFL began as the National Trades and Labour Congress (NTLC) in 1902. The NTLC was largely made up of Canadian-based unions. These unions wanted to offer Canadian workers alternatives to the international unions based in the United States that dominated the Canadian labor movement at the time. In 1907 the NTLC changed its name to the Canadian Federation of Labour. By the 1920s the CFL only had a few thousand members because of its cautious tactics, its disapproval of strikes, and the strength of the competing international unions. In 1927 the remnants of the CFL helped found the All-Canadian Congress of Labour.

The later CFL grew out of grievances between the Canadian Labour Congress and its conservative member unions in building trades such as carpentry and electrical work. The building-trade unions disagreed with the CLC’s support of the New Democratic Party. They were also upset that the CLC insisted that local unions, not union leaders, choose convention delegates. Finally the building trades wanted the CLC to discipline the Québec Federation of Labour for forming a rival provincial construction union. When the building trades withheld their dues from the CLC in protest, the CLC expelled them in 1981. The building-trade unions formed the CFL in 1982.

The CFL's founding convention chose James McCambly of British Columbia as president. The CFL began an investment fund called Working Ventures, which invested workers’ money as venture capital for small businesses. Working Ventures and the CFL's political conservatism won praise from the business press. The CFL’s influence was weakened when the 100,000-member Carpenters' Union, which had also been expelled from the CLC, declined to join the new group. The CFL also lost its fight against double-breasting (the hiring of both union and nonunion workers by so-called union contractors) and other antiunion practices in the construction industry. In 1996 the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers left the CFL and returned to the CLC. By 1997 the CFL reported only 101,000 members. In that year the CFL ceased operating as a central labor body, keeping only the Working Ventures fund active.

What Is Site Map,

What Is Site Map,

A site map is a list of pages of a web site or blog accessible to users. It can be either a document in any form which is used as a planning tool for Web design, or a Web page that lists the pages on a Web site, typically 

Normally, webpage maps are sorted out progressively, breaking down the Web website's data into progressively particular branches of knowledge. There are various diverse sorts of site maps: hierarchical outline site maps are truly comparative in manifestation to a customary chapter by chapter list; others, taking into account a viewpoint perspective of the site, are similar to a three dimensional model with distinctive pages upright, in the same way as record cards, organized in segments and interfaced by lines. Organized Graph Format (SGF) website maps utilize a XML position dialect to portray Web webpage substance, and a Java SGF viewer to communicate with the information. There are various organizations making website mapping items; by and large, these don't oblige Web plan abilities -, for example, HTML or XML capacity - from the client. Prevalent site mapping items incorporate Thebrain's Sitebrain, Inxight Software's Tree Studio, IBM's Java-based Mappuccino, and Dynamic Diagram's eponymous item. Webpage maps can likewise be made utilizing more general Web website administration apparatuses, for example, Visual Web, or Microsoft's Site Analyst.

http://worldeduhelper.blogspot.com

Top 1000 High Page Rank/PR Free Directory Submission Sites,

Top 1000 High Page Rank/PR Free Directory Submission Sites,

List Of Sites,                                                                        Page Rank
http://www.freeprwebdirectory.com                                            4                                                         4
http://www.overlandagency.com                                            4
http://customsearchengine.com                                                    4
http://www.scrubtheweb.com                                                    4
http://www.infotiger.com                                                            4
http://littlewebdirectory.com                                                    4
http://www.arakne-links.com                                                    4
http://www.tsection.com                                                            4
http://rcreducation.com                                                            4
http://somuch.com                                                                    4
http://gazingus.org                                                                    4
gazingus.org                                                                            4
http://aaasmeetings.org                                                            4
http://baikalglobal.com/                                                            4
http://icid2010.org                                                                    4
http://cultuurtechnologie.net                                                    4
http://surfsafely.com                                                                    4
http://yekey.com                                                                    4
http://www.submit.biz                                                            4
http://www.claymont.com/                                                           4
http://www.zeezo.com/                                                            4
http://www.gainweb.org/                                                            4
http://www.locators-online.org/                                                    4
http://www.submit.biz/                                                            4
http://www.thalesdirectory.com/                                            4
http://cglegend.com/                                                                    4
http://www.ccwos.com/                                                            4
http://www.skoobe.biz                                                            4
http://www.9sites.net/                                                            4
http://www.diroo.org/                                                            4
http://www.ukinternetdirectory.net/                                            4
http://www.bc3.net/                                                                    4
http://www.zicosur.org                                                            4
http://directory.tcch.org/                                                            4
http://www.boardse.com                                                            4
http://www.masc.cc/                                                                    4
http://www.xland.info/                                                            4
http://www.directory.gtsee.com/                                            4
http://www.linkaddurl.com/                                                    4
http://www.mcchandigarh.com/                                                    4
http://www.piyy.com/                                                            4
http://www.a1webdirectory.org/                                            4
http://directory.esgsite.com/                                                    4
http://www.uksuperweb.co.uk/                                                    4
http://www.walesindex.co.uk/forms/submitsite.html                     4
http://www.infignos.com/                                                            4
http://www.abrahamsearch.com                                            4
http://www.beedirectory.com                                                    4
http://www.dir2dir.net/                                                            4
http://www.uwillfind.com/                                                            4
http://www.listsweb.com/                                                            4
http://www.companiesindia.com/                                            4
http://www.spiritualsearch.net                                                    4

Visit Http://Drivermarket.net and download all Type of Drivers for free..

Poison And It's Treatment,

Poison And It's Treatment,
any substance that produces disease conditions, tissue injury, or otherwise interrupts natural life processes when in contact with or absorbed into the body. Most poisons taken in sufficient quantity are lethal. A poisonous substance may originate as a mineral, vegetable, or an animal, and it may assume the form of a solid, liquid, or gas. A poison, depending on the type, may attack the surface of the body or, more seriously, internal organs or the central nervous system. See also Occupational and Environmental Diseases; Poisonous Plants; Radiation Effects, Biological; Toxin; Venom.

II  KINDS OF POISON, 

Poisons in humans are usually classified according to their effects as corrosives, irritants, or narcotics; the last named are also known as systemic or nerve poisons.

Corrosives include strong acids or alkalis that cause local tissue destruction, externally or internally; that is, they “burn” the skin or the lining of the stomach. Vomiting occurs immediately, and the vomitus is intermixed with blood. Common or so-called household corrosive poisons include hydrochloric acid, carbolic acid, bichloride of mercury, and ammonia.

Irritants such as arsenic, mercury, iodine, and laxatives act directly on the mucous membrane, causing gastrointestinal irritation or inflammation accompanied by pain and vomiting; diluted corrosive poisons also have these effects. Irritants include cumulative poisons, those substances that can be absorbed gradually without apparent harm until they suddenly take effect.

Narcotic poisons act upon the central nervous system or upon important organs such as the heart, liver, lungs, or kidneys until they affect the respiratory and circulatory systems. These poisons can cause coma, convulsions, or delirium. Narcotic poisons include alcohol, opium and its derivatives, belladonna, turpentine, potassium cyanide, chloroform, and strychnine. Also included in this category is one of the most dangerous poisons known, botulin toxin, a potent bacterial toxin that is the cause of acute food poisoning (see Botulism).

Blood poisoning, also bacterial in nature, is a condition that occurs when virulent microorganisms invade the bloodstream through a wound or an infection. Symptoms include chills, fever, prostration, and often infections or secondary abscesses in various organs (see Septicemia). Most poison gases also affect the bloodstream. Because these gases restrict the body’s ability to absorb oxygen, they are often considered in a separate category called asphyxiants, to which group ordinary carbon monoxide belongs. Gas poisons, however, may also be corrosives or irritants (see Chemical and Biological Warfare).

About 50 percent of all human poisoning cases in the U.S. involve commonly used drugs or household products such as aspirin, barbiturates, insecticides, and cosmetics. Because barbiturates are easily available, toxic effects resulting from their misuse are not infrequent. Acute poisoning may result from overdosage or interaction with other drugs, especially alcohol. The victim of acute barbiturate poisoning may become agitated and nauseated, or may pass into a deep sleep marked by increasingly shallow respiration. Coma and heart failure may follow. Chronic barbiturate poisoning, caused by prolonged use of the drugs, is usually marked by gastrointestinal irritation, loss of appetite, and anemia. In advanced stages of chronic barbiturate poisoning the victim may show mental confusion.

III  TREATMENT,

 One of the mainstays of treatment of accidental poisoning is the local or regional poison control center. Approximately 85 percent of cases of poisoning are handled in the home after telephone consultation with a center.

Various treatments may counteract the effect of a poison. In most cases the use of dilution is advisable, that is, the ingestion of large quantities of water or milk. In other cases it is advisable to use an emetic, a substance that induces vomiting and rids the stomach of certain poisons. An emetic may act locally, as on the gastric nerves, or systematically on the part of the brain that causes the vomiting. Household emetics, which act locally, include a tablespoon of salt dissolved in warm water or two tablespoons of mustard dissolved in a pint of water. Emetics must not be given to a person who has swallowed a corrosive poison. An antidote, unlike an emetic, is a remedy that counteracts the effects of a poison chemically, although it may result indirectly in vomiting. An antidote may work against a poison by neutralizing it, rendering it insoluble, absorbing it, isolating it, or producing an opposite physiological effect generally. In any instance of poisoning, it is imperative that remedial treatment be started immediately. See First Aid.

Top 10 Beautiful And Famous Flowers,

Top 10 Beautiful And Famous Flowers,

reproductive organ of most seed-bearing plants. Flowers carry out the multiple roles of sexual reproduction, seed development, and fruit production. Many plants produce highly visible flowers that have a distinctive size, color, or fragrance. Almost everyone is familiar with beautiful flowers such as the blossoms of roses, orchids, and tulips. But many plants—including oaks, beeches, maples, and grasses—have small, green or gray flowers that typically go unnoticed.

Whether eye-catching or inconspicuous, all flowers produce the male or female sex cells required for sexual reproduction. Flowers are also the site of fertilization, which is the union of a male and female sex cell to produce a fertilized egg. The fertilized egg then develops into an embryonic (immature) plant, which forms part of the developing seed. Neighboring structures of the flower enclose the seed and mature into a fruit.

Botanists estimate that there are more than 240,000 species of flowering plants. However, flowering plants are not the only seed-producing plants. Pines, firs, and cycads are among the few hundred plants that bear their seeds on the surface of cones, rather than within a fruit. Botanists call the cone-bearing plants gymnosperms, which means naked seeds; they refer to flowering plants as angiosperms, which means enclosed seeds. 

Flowering plants are more widespread than any other group of plants. They bloom on every continent, from the bogs and marshes of the Arctic tundra to the barren soils of Antarctica. Deserts, grasslands, rainforests, and other biomes display distinctive flower species. Even streams, rivers, lakes, and swamps are home to many flowering plants. 

In their diverse environments, flowers have evolved to become irreplaceable participants in the complex, interdependent communities of organisms that make up ecosystems. The seeds or fruits that flowers produce are food sources for many animals, large and small. In addition, many insects, bats, hummingbirds, and small mammals feed on nectar, a sweet liquid produced by many flowers, or on flower products known as pollen grains. The animals that eat flowers, seeds, and fruits are prey for other animals—lizards, frogs, salamanders, and fish, for example—which in turn are devoured by yet other animals, such as owls and snakes. Thus, flowers provide a bountiful feast that sustains an intricate web of predators and prey (see Food Web).

Flowers play diverse roles in the lives of humans. Wildflowers of every hue brighten the landscape, and the attractive shapes and colors of cultivated flowers beautify homes, parks, and roadsides. The fleshy fruits that flowers produce, such as apples, grapes, strawberries, and oranges, are eaten worldwide, as are such hard-shelled fruits as pecans and other nuts. Flowers also produce wheat, rice, oats, and corn—the grains that are dietary mainstays throughout the world. People even eat unopened flowers, such as those of broccoli and cauliflower, which are popular vegetables. Natural dyes come from flowers, and fragrant flowers, such as jasmine and damask rose, are harvested for their oils and made into perfumes. Certain flowers, such as red clover blossoms, are collected for their medicinal properties, and edible flowers, such as nasturtiums, add color and flavor to a variety of dishes. Flowers also are used to symbolize emotions, as is evidenced by their use from ancient times in significant rituals, such as weddings and funerals. 

II  PARTS OF A FLOWER, 

Flowers typically are composed of four parts, or whorls, arranged in concentric rings attached to the tip of the stem. From innermost to outermost, these whorls are the (1) pistil, (2) stamens, (3) petals, and (4) sepals. 

A  Pistil, 

The innermost whorl, located in the center of the flower, is the female reproductive structure, or pistil. Often vase-shaped, the pistil consists of three parts: the stigma, the style, and the ovary. The stigma, a slightly flared and sticky structure at the top of the pistil, functions by trapping pollen grains, the structures that give rise to the sperm cells necessary for fertilization. The style is a narrow stalk that supports the stigma. The style rises from the ovary, a slightly swollen structure seated at the base of the flower. Depending on the species, the ovary contains one or more ovules, each of which holds one egg cell. After fertilization, the ovules develop into seeds, while the ovary enlarges into the fruit. If a flower has only one ovule, the fruit will contain one seed, as in a peach. The fruit of a flower with many ovules, such as a tomato, will have many seeds. An ovary that contains one or more ovules also is called a carpel, and a pistil may be composed of one to several carpels.

B  Stamens, 

The next whorl consists of the male reproductive structures, several to many stamens arranged around the pistil. A stamen consists of a slender stalk called the filament, which supports the anther, a tiny compartment where pollen forms. When a flower is still an immature, unopened bud, the filaments are short and serve to transport nutrients to the developing pollen. As the flower opens, the filaments lengthen and hold the anthers higher in the flower, where the pollen grains are more likely to be picked up by visiting animals, wind, or in the case of some aquatic plants, by water. The animals, wind, or water might then carry the pollen to the stigma of an appropriate flower. The placement of pollen on the stigma is called pollination. Pollination initiates the process of fertilization.

C  Petals, 

Petals, the next whorl, surround the stamens and collectively are termed the corolla. Many petals have bright colors, which attract animals that carry out pollination, collectively termed pollinators. Three groups of pigments—alone or in combination—produce a veritable rainbow of petal colors: anthocyanins yield shades of violet, blue, and red; betalains create reds; and carotenoids produce yellows and orange. Petal color can be modified in several ways. Texture, for example, can play a role in the overall effect—a smooth petal is shiny, while a rough one appears velvety. If cells inside the petal are filled with starch, they create a white layer that makes pigments appear brighter. Petals with flat air spaces between cells shimmer iridescently. 

In some flowers, the pigments form distinct patterns, invisible to humans but visible to bees, who can see ultraviolet light. Like the landing strips of an airport, these patterns, called nectar guides, direct bees to the nectar within the flower. Nectar is made in specialized glands located at or near the petal’s base. Some flowers secrete copious amounts of nectar and attract big pollinators with large appetites, such as bats. Other flowers, particularly those that depend on wind or water to transport their pollen, may secrete little or no nectar. The petals of many species also are the source of the fragrances that attract pollinators. In these species, the petals house tiny glands that produce essential, or volatile, oils that vaporize easily, often releasing a distinctive aroma. One flower can make dozens of different essential oils, which mingle to yield the flower’s unique fragrance. 

D  Sepals, 

The sepals, the outermost whorl, together are called the calyx. In the flower bud, the sepals tightly enclose and protect the petals, stamens, and pistil from rain or insects. The sepals unfurl as the flower opens and often resemble small green leaves at the flower’s base. In some flowers, the sepals are colorful and work with the petals to attract pollinators. 

E  Variations in Structure, 

Like virtually all forms in nature, flowers display many variations in their structure. Most flowers have all four whorls—pistil, stamens, petals, and sepals. Botanists call these complete flowers. But some flowers are incomplete, meaning they lack one or more whorls. Incomplete flowers are most common in plants whose pollen is dispersed by the wind or water. Since these flowers do not need to attract pollinators, most have no petals, and some even lack sepals. Certain wind-pollinated flowers do have small sepals and petals that create eddies in the wind, directing pollen to swirl around and settle on the flower. In still other flowers, the petals and sepals are fused into structures called a floral tube.

Flowers that lack either stamens or a pistil are said to be imperfect. The petal-like rays on the edge of a sunflower, for example, are actually tiny, imperfect flowers that lack stamens. Imperfect flowers can still function in sexual reproduction. A flower that lacks a pistil but has stamens produces pollen, and a flower with a pistil but no stamens provides ovules and can develop into fruits and seeds. Flowers that have only stamens are termed staminate, and flowers that have only a pistil are called pistillate.

Although a single flower can be either staminate or pistillate, a plant species must have both to reproduce sexually. In some species with imperfect flowers, the staminate and pistillate flowers occur on the same plant. Such plants, known as monoecious species, include corn. The tassel at the top of the corn plant consists of hundreds of tiny staminate flowers, and the ears, which are located laterally on the stem, contain clusters of pistillate flowers. The silks of corn are very long styles leading to the ovaries, which, when ripe, form the kernels of corn. In dioecious species—such as date, willow, and hemp—staminate and pistillate flowers are found on different plants. A date tree, for example, will develop male or female flowers but not both. In dioecious species, at least two plants, one bearing staminate flowers and one bearing pistillate flowers, are needed for pollination and fertilization.

Other variations are found in the types of stems that support flowers. In some species, flowers are attached to only one main stem, called the peduncle. In others, flowers are attached to smaller stems, called pedicels, that branch from the peduncle. The peduncle and pedicels orient a flower so that its pollinator can reach it. In the morning glory, for example, pedicels hold the flowers in a horizontal position. This enables their hummingbird pollinators to feed since they do not crawl into the flower as other pollinators do, but hover near the flower and lick the nectar with their long tongues. Scientists assign specific terms to the different flower and stem arrangements to assist in the precise identification of a flower. A plant with just one flower at the tip of the peduncle—a tulip, for example—is termed solitary. In a spike, such as sage, flowers are attached to the sides of the peduncle.

Sometimes flowers are grouped together in a cluster called an inflorescence. In an indeterminate inflorescence, the lower flowers bloom first, and blooming proceeds over a period of days from the bottom to the top of the peduncle or pedicels. As long as light, water, temperature, and nutrients are favorable, the tip of the peduncle or pedicel continues to add new buds. There are several types of indeterminate inflorescences. These include the raceme, formed by a series of pedicels that emerge from the peduncle, as in snapdragons and lupines; and the panicle, in which the series of pedicels branches and rebranches, as in lilac. 

In determinate inflorescences, called cymes, the peduncle is capped by a flower bud, which prevents the stem from elongating and adding more flowers. However, new flower buds appear on side pedicels that form below the central flower, and the flowers bloom from the top to the bottom of the pedicels. Flowers that bloom in cymes include chickweed and phlox.

III SEXUAL REPRODUCTION,

Sexual reproduction mixes the hereditary material from two parents, creating a population of genetically diverse offspring. Such a population can better withstand environmental changes. Unlike animals, flowers cannot move from place to place, yet sexual reproduction requires the union of the egg from one parent with the sperm from another parent. Flowers overcome their lack of mobility through the all-important process of pollination. Pollination occurs in several ways. In most flowers pollinated by insects and other animals, the pollen escapes through pores in the anthers. As pollinators forage for food, the pollen sticks to their body and then rubs off on the flower's stigma, or on the stigma of the next flower they visit. In plants that rely on wind for pollination, the anthers burst open, releasing a cloud of yellow, powdery pollen that drifts to other flowers. In a few aquatic plants, pollen is released into the water, where it floats to other flowers.

Pollen consists of thousands of microscopic pollen grains. A tough pollen wall surrounds each grain. In most flowers, the pollen grains released from the anthers contain two cells. If a pollen grain lands on the stigma of the same species, the pollen grain germinates—one cell within the grain emerges through the pollen wall and contacts the surface of the stigma, where it begins to elongate. The lengthening cell grows through the stigma and style, forming a pollen tube that transports the other cell within the pollen down the style to the ovary. As the tube grows, the cell within it divides to produce two sperm cells, the male sex cells. In some species, the sperm are produced before the pollen is released from the anther.

Independently of the pollen germination and pollen tube growth, developmental changes occur within the ovary. The ovule produces several specialized structures—among them, the egg, or female sex cell. The pollen tube grows into the ovary, crosses the ovule wall, and releases the two sperm cells into the ovule. One sperm unites with the egg, triggering hormonal changes that transform the ovule into a seed. The outer wall of the ovule develops into the seed coat, while the fertilized egg grows into an embryonic plant. The growing embryonic plant relies on a starchy, nutrient-rich food in the seed called endosperm. Endosperm develops from the union of the second sperm with the two polar nuclei, also known as the central cell nuclei, structures also produced by the ovary. As the seed grows, hormones are released that stimulate the walls of the ovary to expand, and it develops into the fruit. The mature fruit often is hundreds or even thousands of times larger than the tiny ovary from which it grew, and the seeds also are quite large compared to the miniscule ovules from which they originated. The fruits, which are unique to flowering plants, play an extremely important role in dispersing seeds. Animals eat fruits, such as berries and grains. The seeds pass through the digestive tract of the animal unharmed and are deposited in a wide variety of locations, where they germinate to produce the next generation of flowering plants, thus continuing the species. Other fruits are dispersed far and wide by wind or water; the fruit of maple trees, for example, has a winglike structure that catches the wind. 

IV  FLOWERING AND THE LIFE CYCLE, 

The life cycle of a flowering plant begins when the seed germinates. It progresses through the growth of roots, stems, and leaves; formation of flower buds; pollination and fertilization; and seed and fruit development. The life cycle ends with senescence, or old age, and death. Depending on the species, the life cycle of a plant may last one, two, or many years. Plants called annuals carry out their life cycle within one year. Biennial plants live for two years: The first year they produce leaves, and in the second year they produce flowers and fruits and then die. Perennial plants live for more than one year. Some perennials bloom every year, while others, like agave, live for years without flowering and then in a few weeks produce thousands of flowers, fruits, and seeds before dying.

Whatever the life cycle, most plants flower in response to certain cues. A number of factors influence the timing of flowering. The age of the plant is critical—most plants must be at least one or two weeks old before they bloom; presumably they need this time to accumulate the energy reserves required for flowering. The number of hours of darkness is another factor that influences flowering. Many species bloom only when the night is just the right length—a phenomenon called photoperiodism. Poinsettias, for example, flower in winter when the nights are long, while spinach blooms when the nights are short—late spring through late summer. Temperature, light intensity, and moisture also affect the time of flowering. In the desert, for example, heavy rains that follow a long dry period often trigger flowers to bloom.

V  EVOLUTION OF FLOWERS, 

Flowering plants are thought to have evolved around 135 million years ago from cone-bearing gymnosperms. Scientists had long proposed that the first flower most likely resembled today’s magnolias or water lilies, two types of flowers that lack some of the specialized structures found in most modern flowers. But in the late 1990s scientists compared the genetic material deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of different plants to determine their evolutionary relationships. From these studies, scientists identified a small, cream-colored flower from the genus Amborella as the only living relative to the first flowering plant. This rare plant is found only on the South Pacific island of New Caledonia. 

The evolution of flowers dramatically changed the face of earth. On a planet where algae, ferns, and cycads tinged the earth with a monochromatic green hue, flowers emerged to paint the earth with vivid shades of red, pink, orange, yellow, blue, violet, and white. Flowering plants spread rapidly, in part because their fruits so effectively disperse seeds. Today, flowering plants occupy virtually all areas of the planet, with about 240,000 species known.

Many flowers and pollinators coevolved—that is, they influenced each other’s traits during the process of evolution. For example, any population of flowers displays a range of color, fragrance, size, and shape—hereditary traits that can be passed from one generation to the next. Certain traits or combinations of traits appeal more to pollinators, so pollinators are more likely to visit these attractive plants. The appealing plants have a greater chance of being pollinated than others and, thus, are likely to produce more seeds. The seeds develop into plants that display the inherited appealing traits. Similarly, in a population of pollinators, there are variations in hereditary traits, such as wing size and shape, length and shape of tongue, ability to detect fragrance, and so on. For example, pollinators whose bodies are small enough to reach inside certain flowers gather pollen and nectar more efficiently than larger-sized members of their species. These efficient, well-fed pollinators have more energy for reproduction. Their offspring inherit the traits that enable them to forage successfully in flowers, and from generation to generation, these traits are preserved. The pollinator preference seen today for certain flower colors, fragrances, and shapes often represents hundreds of thousands of years of coevolution.

Coevolution often results in exquisite adaptations between flower and pollinator. These adaptations can minimize competition for nectar and pollen among pollinators and also can minimize competition among flowers for pollinators. Comet orchids, for example, have narrow flowers almost a foot and a half long. These flowers are pollinated only by a species of hawk moth that has a narrow tongue just the length of the flowers. The flower shape prevents other pollinators from consuming the nectar, guarantees the moths a meal, and ensures the likelihood of pollination and fertilization.

Most flowers and pollinators, however, are not as precisely matched to each other, but adaptation still plays a significant role in their interactions. For example, hummingbirds are particularly attracted to the color red. Hummingbird-pollinated flowers typically are red, and they often are narrow, an adaptation that suits the long tongues of hummingbirds. Bats are large pollinators that require relatively more energy than other pollinators. They visit big flowers like those of saguaro cactus, which supply plenty of nectar or pollen. Bats avoid little flowers that do not offer enough reward. 

Other examples of coevolution are seen in the bromeliads and orchids that grow in dark forests. These plants often have bright red, purple, or white sepals or petals, which make them visible to pollinators. Night-flying pollinators, such as moths and bats, detect white flowers most easily, and flowers that bloom at sunset, such as yucca, datura, and cereus, usually are white. 

The often delightful and varied fragrances of flowers also reveal the hand of coevolution. In some cases, insects detect fragrance before color. They follow faint aromas to flowers that are too far away to be seen, recognizing petal shape and color only when they are very close to the flower. Some night-blooming flowers emit sweet fragrances that attract night-flying moths. At the other extreme, carrion flowers, flowers pollinated by flies, give off the odor of rotting meat to attract their pollinators.

Flowers and their pollinators also coevolved to influence each other’s life cycles. Among species that flower in response to a dark period, some measure the critical night length so accurately that all species of the region flower in the same week or two. This enables related plants to interbreed, and provides pollinators with enough pollen and nectar to live on so that they too can reproduce. The process of coevolution also has resulted in synchronization of floral and insect life cycles. Sometimes flowering occurs the week that insect pollinators hatch or emerge from dormancy, or bird pollinators return from winter migration, so that they feed on and pollinate the flowers. Flowering also is timed so that fruits and seeds are produced when animals are present to feed on the fruits and disperse the seeds. 

VI  FLOWERS AND EXTINCTION, 

Like the amphibians, reptiles, insects, birds, and mammals that are experiencing alarming extinction rates, a number of wildflower species also are endangered. The greatest threat lies in the furious pace at which land is cleared for new houses, industries, and shopping malls to accommodate rapid population growth. Such clearings are making the meadow, forest, and wetland homes of wildflowers ever more scarce. Among the flowers so endangered is the rosy periwinkle of Madagascar, a plant whose compounds have greatly reduced the death rates from childhood leukemia and Hodgkin’s disease. Flowering plants, many with other medicinal properties, also are threatened by global warming from increased combustion of fossil fuels; increased ultraviolet light from ozone layer breakdown; and acid rain from industrial emissions. Flowering plants native to a certain region also may be threatened by introduced species. Yellow toadflax, for example, a garden plant brought to the United States and Canada from Europe, has become a notorious weed, spreading to many habitats and preventing the growth of native species. In some cases, unusual wildflowers such as orchids are placed at risk when they are collected extensively to be sold.

Many of the threats that endanger flowering plants also place their pollinators at risk. When a species of flower or pollinator is threatened, the coevolution of pollinators and flowers may prove to be disadvantageous. If a flower species dies out, its pollinators will lack food and may also die out, and the predators that depend on the pollinators also become threatened. In cases where pollinators are adapted to only one or a few types of flowers, the loss of those plants can disrupt an entire ecosystem. Likewise, if pollinators are damaged by ecological changes, plants that depend on them will not be pollinated, seeds will not be formed, and new generations of plants cannot grow. The fruits that these flowers produce may become scarce, affecting the food supply of humans and other animals that depend on them.

Worldwide, more than 300 species of flowering plants are endangered, or at immediate risk of extinction. Another two dozen or so are considered threatened, or likely to become extinct in the near future. Of these species, fewer than 50 were the focus of preservation plans in the late 1990s. Various regional, national, and international organizations have marshaled their resources in response to the critical need for protecting flowering plants and their habitats. In the United States, native plant societies work to conserve regional plants in every state. The United States Fish and Wildlife Endangered Species Program protects habitats for threatened and endangered species throughout the United States, as do the Canadian Wildlife Service in Canada, the Ministry for Social Development in Mexico, and similar agencies in other countries. At the international level, the International Plant Conservation Programme at Cambridge, England, collects information and provides education worldwide on plant species at risk, and the United Nations Environmental Programme supports a variety of efforts that address the worldwide crisis of endangered species.

Mushrooms/Toadstool,Fungi, Poisonous Mushrooms,

Mushrooms/Toadstool,Fungi, Poisonous Mushrooms,
technically confined to members of a family of fungi with gills, but in popular usage any of the larger fleshy or woody fungi. The application of the term mushroom to edible species only and the term toadstool to those considered poisonous or otherwise objectionable has no scientific basis. For example, two poisonous fungi may be less closely related than are a poisonous species and an edible one.

Of the thousands of species of mushrooms known throughout the world, the great majority are tough, woody, bitter, tasteless, or of such rare occurrence that they are of no interest as food. A few species produce death or serious illness when eaten. No simple rule exists for distinguishing edible and poisonous mushrooms, but the characteristics of the more common edible species can be readily learned, and collecting activities should be confined to such species. Morels, puffballs, and other species described below are not ordinarily confused with dangerous types; whenever doubt arises, the only safe procedure is to discard all suspicious mushrooms. Fresh commercially grown mushrooms can always be eaten with safety.

II  EDIBLE MUSHROOMS, 

The mushroom species usually grown commercially attains a size of 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in) tall and has a fleshy cap from about 2 to 10 cm (1‚ to 4 in) across. When the mushroom is ripe, the cap is white or slightly brownish above and pink on the underside. With age, the entire fruiting body changes to dark brown. In the young mushroom the margin of the cap is jointed to the stem by a membranous collar, which breaks at maturity to expose the gills on the undersurface of the cap.

Mushrooms are cultivated commercially in caves, dark cellars, or specially constructed mushroom houses in which the proper humidity and temperature are maintained. They are grown in beds consisting of a mixture of rotted manure and chemically treated straw, over which a layer of soil (casing soil) is spread. The vegetative portion of the fungus, known as the mycelium, or spawn, is used for planting, or spawning, the beds. The mycelium is grown in pure culture under laboratory conditions, thus ensuring freedom from insect and fungus contaminants. In a few weeks the spawn invests the entire bed, and the mushroom fruiting bodies, or sporophores, begin to appear. Several flushes, or crops, of mushrooms develop in this manner from each spawning. The mushrooms are harvested at frequent intervals and transported promptly to market.


The field or garden mushroom is a common and widespread species in pastures, grassy areas, and manured fields during the summer season. It has the same desirable qualities as the cultivated species, and until recently both were considered forms of the same species.

The chanterelle, a gill fungus with a nutlike flavor, has been popular in Europe since ancient Roman times. Chanterelles are abundant in coniferous and hardwood forests in midsummer. This mushroom grows from 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in) tall and has an irregularly lobed orange or yellow cap that is funnel-shaped when young, but that expands and becomes depressed at the center as it ages. The crisp, heavy specimens are the most desirable for eating.

The edible pore mushrooms grow in open deciduous woods during summer and early autumn. The king boletus has a stem 5 to 15 cm (2 to 6 in) tall and a fleshy, brown cap 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in) across. The cap is covered with a network of fine veins that are white when young and change in stages from yellow to a greenish hue as the mushroom ages. This mushroom is most tender when the veins are pale yellow. Many other species of the same genus are suitable for food.

The oyster mushroom has a pleasant, oysterlike flavor and is often prepared by dipping in egg and frying slowly. This mushroom grows in bracketlike clusters on decaying tree trunks. It is almost stemless. The fleshy, tender cap is 8 to 13 cm (3 to 5 in) across, tawny olive-colored when young, but fades with age. The oyster mushroom is abundant from June to November.


The sulfur mushroom develops on rotten logs, stumps, and even on standing trees, producing a brown wood rot. The fruiting bodies, appearing from late summer through fall, develop as bright-orange and yellow rosettes or as a series of fan-shaped shelves. These mushrooms may reach a breadth of several meters and a weight of several kilograms. Spores are produced in enormous numbers in minute pores on the lower surface. The fungus is edible if gathered in the young, growing stage, but rapidly becomes dry, tough, and honeycombed by insect larvae.

The shaggy-mane is a common and widespread mushroom species appearing from spring until fall in lawns, gardens, and other open spaces. This species grows singly or in clumps and may occur in the same area year after year. It is easily recognized by the attractive cylindrical caps, which are rounded above, up to 5 cm (2 in) wide and 15 cm (6 in) long, and covered with soft, shaggy brown scales. The caps do not expand with maturity, as in most other mushrooms, and the tightly packed gills soon dissolve into a black, inky fluid. The shaggy-mane is considered one of the choicest edible species. Blackened portions should be discarded before the mushroom is eaten. Some related species cause poisoning when alcohol is taken within five days after ingestion of the mushroom.

The giant puffballs do not resemble ordinary mushrooms in shape. They are very large and globose, are 8 to 51 cm (3 to 20 in) in diameter, and have no gills or pores; the spores are borne internally. The fruiting body is creamy white in the edible stage but later becomes brown and powdery and unsuitable for food. Puffballs grow in grassy places and at the edge of woods during late summer and early fall. They do not resemble poisonous or otherwise offensive fungi. Other puffballs are edible as long as the tissues within are not discolored or larva-infested. Species that are brown to purple within should be avoided.

The true morels and related species are excellent edible forms. They grow about 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4.5 in) tall and have a cap about 2 to 3 cm (1 to 1.5 in) wide. The cap is greenish-yellow to dark olive in color and is ribbed and pitted like a honeycomb. Morels are commonly found in the spring in old apple orchards and woods, especially under butternut trees, and on burned-over land or areas where wood ashes have been scattered. The morels should not be confused with the false morels, the edibility of which is definitely suspect.

Truffles, especially the Périgord truffle, are subterranean European fungi and probably the most highly prized of the edible fungi. The flesh of all truffles is nearly white when young; as the truffle matures, the flesh becomes darker with a marbling of lighter tissue. Because truffles have a distinctive odor, their underground location may be determined by animals trained for this purpose. Pigs and dogs are the usual truffle hunters. Truffles and the livers of fattened geese are the chief constituents of pâté de foie gras.

III  POISONOUS MUSHROOMS ,

The number of poisonous fungus species is probably more than 200. Many mushrooms formerly considered doubtful or poisonous have been found to be edible. The original misconception in these cases probably resulted from observation of sickness following the consumption of mushrooms that were no longer fresh and that contained poisons that were similar to those generated in putrefied meats and vegetables.

Some mushrooms, however, especially amanitas, are extremely poisonous and are often fatal if ingested by humans. They contain organic toxins that destroy cells in the central nervous system, blood vessels, kidneys, liver, and musculature. Medically, the most important toxins formed by fungi are ibotenic acid, muscarine, monomethylhydrazine, and the amatoxins. Ibotenic acid is the principal toxin in the fly amanita, even though muscarine is so named because it is found in that mushroom; muscarine is also synthesized by other poisonous mushrooms. Monomethylhydrazine occurs in the poisonous false morels, which may be mistaken for true morels. See Toxin.

The amatoxins of amanitas cause severe abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting, and violent diarrhea. Jaundice and cyanosis often develop, followed by coma and death. Symptoms usually become apparent 8 to 12 hours or even longer after the mushroom is eaten; death follows in 2 or 3 days. Treatment for poisoning by amatoxins and muscarine is supportive after the mushrooms have been cleansed from the gastrointestinal tract. Thioctic acid is administered to individuals poisoned by amatoxins, but its effectiveness is uncertain. Atropine is an antidote for muscarine poisoning but not for other poisons produced by fungi.

Amanita is common in open woods, wood margins, and roadside places, from early summer until frost. It is 10 to 20 cm (4 to 8 in) tall, with a cap 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in) broad. The cap is scaly and brightly colored, usually orange-yellow to pale yellow. The flesh is yellow just beneath the skin, but the inner flesh is white. The white and scaly stem is bulbous at the base and bears a soft torn frill or ring close to the top. The gills are white or pale yellow. The specific name and the common names are derived from its property of poisoning flies.

The death cup, or death angel, and three related species are the most deadly mushrooms known. Most other amanitas are poisonous or suspect. An exception is Caesar’s amanita, an edible mushroom popular since Roman times.
Jack-o-lantern is a saffron-yellow gill mushroom that grows at the bases of decayed stumps. The stem is 7 to 13 cm (3 to 5 in) tall, and the cap is 7 to 13 cm (3 to 5 in) wide. In shape it bears a resemblance to an edible mushroom of the same genus, the short-stem giant clitocybe, which has a large cap when mature and is white to tan in color.

Many other mushrooms are generally avoided because, like Satan’s mushroom, their edibility is doubtful, or because, like stinkhorns, they have a disagreeable odor. The so-called emetic mushroom and its near relatives should be avoided.

Scientific classification: Mushrooms make up the family Agaricaceae. The species usually grown commercially is classified as Agaricus bisporus, the field or garden mushroom as Agaricus campestris. The chanterelle is classified as Cantherellus cibarius. Pore mushrooms make up the genus Boletus. The king boletus is classified as Boletus edulis, the oyster mushroom as Pleurotus ostreatus, the sulfur mushroom as Polyporus sulfurreus, and the shaggy-mane as Coprinus comatus. Giant puffballs belong to the genus Calvatia; other puffballs make up the genera Lycoperdon and Scleroderma. The true morel is classified as Morchella esculenta. False morels belong to the genus Gyromitra. The Périgord truffle is classified as Tuber melanosporum. Amanitas make up the genus Amanita. The fly amanita is classified as Amanita muscaria, the death cup as Amanita phalloides, and Caesar’s amanita as Amanita caesarea. The jack-o-lantern is classified as Clitocybe illudens, the short-stem giant clitocybe as Clitocybe gigantea, Satan’s mushroom as Boletus satana, and the emetic mushroom as Russula emetica.

.