Internet Service Provider Company (ISP)

Service Provider, company that sells computer access to the Internet, also called Internet service provider (ISP) or access provider. A user buys a subscription to a service provider, which gives the user an identifying username and password and a phone number. With his or her computer and modem, the user calls, connects to, and logs on to the service provider's computer. The user's computer then lets the service provider's computer take over, acting like a dumb terminal. The user can then utilize any of the tools the service provider's computer furnishes, which can give access to the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail (e-mail), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Telnet, and other Internet services. Some service providers limit the amount of time a user can spend connected to the service provider's computer or charge more money for extra time.

Speech And Speech Disorders, Language Impairments

Speech and Speech Disorders. Speech is a learned system of communication requiring the coordinated use of voice, articulation, and language skills. Although many animals are physiologically able to use the voice for communicating a wide range of simple messages to others of their species, only humans are able to produce true speech (as opposed to the skills in speech mimicry of such birds as parrots and mynae). In a broad sense, speech is synonymous with language.

II  VOICE 

Voice, or phonation, is the sound produced by the expiration of air through vibrating vocal cords (see Larynx). Voice is defined in terms of pitch, quality, and intensity, or loudness. Optimum pitch, which means the most appropriate pitch for speaking, varies with each individual. Both optimum pitch and range of pitch are fundamentally determined by the length and mass of the vocal cords; within these limits, pitch may be varied by changing the combination of air pressure and tension of the vocal cords. This combination determines the frequency at which the vocal cords vibrate; the greater the frequency of vibration, the higher the pitch.

Another aspect of voice is resonance. After voice is produced, it is resonated in the chest, throat, and cavities of the mouth. The quality of the voice is determined by resonance and the manner in which the vocal cords vibrate; intensity is controlled by resonance and by the strength of the vibrations of the vocal cords.

III  ARTICULATION

Articulation refers to the speech sounds that are produced to form the words of language. The articulating mechanism comprises the lips, tongue, teeth, jaw, and palate. Speech is articulated by interrupting or shaping both the vocalized and unvocalized airstream through movement of the tongue, lips, lower jaw, and soft palate. The teeth are used to produce some specific speech sounds.

IV  LANGUAGE SKILLS AND OTHER FACTORS

Language is an arbitrary system of abstract symbols agreed upon by any group of people to communicate their thoughts and feelings. Symbols may be verbal or nonverbal, that is, either spoken or written; additionally, nonverbal symbols may be gestures and body movements (See also Sign Language). In spoken language the skills of articulation are used; in written language, spelling is substituted for articulation. Both auditory and visual skills are essential to the comprehension and expression of language.

Rate and rhythm also should be considered in the evaluation of speech. Connected speech should not be so rapid or so slow that it interferes with comprehension. Rhythm is judged mostly in terms of fluency. Good or so-called normal speech cannot be exactly measured or described, however; it can be judged essentially only as it seems to be suitable to the sex, size, age, personality, and needs of the speaker.

V  SPEECH DISORDERS

Because speech is a learned function, any interference with learning ability may be expected to cause a speech impairment. The most common interfering conditions are certain neuroses and psychoses, mental retardation, and brain damage, whether congenital or acquired. Articulation itself may be impaired by such physical disabilities as cleft palate, cerebral palsy, or loss of hearing; it may likewise deteriorate as a result of paralysis of any part of the articulating mechanism. Impairment may also be the consequence of unconscious imitation of poor speech models or inadequate perception of auditory stimuli.

Voice disorders, so-called dysphonias, may be the product of disease or accidents that affect the larynx. They may also be caused by such physical anomalies as incomplete development or other congenital defect of the vocal cords. The most frequent cause, however, is chronic abuse of the vocal apparatus, either by overuse or by improper production of the voice; this may result in such pathological changes as growths on or thickening and swelling of the vocal cords.

Disorders of rate and rhythm are generally either psychogenic or have a basis in some neurological disturbance. A notable example of a neurological condition is Parkinson disease.

VI  SPEECH THERAPY

A speech therapist is a specialist who has been trained to diagnose and treat the various disorders of speech, language, and voice. Because physical, neurological, or psychological conditions often are either responsible for or are related to the speech disorder, the therapist often works as a member of a team, which may include a neurologist, an otolaryngologist, a psychiatrist, a psychologist, a psychiatric social worker, and a speech pathologist.

Speech disorders caused by disease, injury, or malformation fall in the province of the physician and surgeon. Once these defects are remedied, the speech therapist is responsible for teaching the speech-impaired person to hear and monitor speech accurately, to think appropriately in verbal terms, and to exercise control over speech disordered by incoordination or emotional influences.

Inasmuch as a hearing loss (see Deafness) will prevent learning by imitation of essential speech patterns and sounds and prevent the individual from monitoring his or her own errors, one of the therapist's most valuable techniques is the measurement of hearing. Because intellectual capacity and the ability to handle language are closely related, the therapist must also understand how intelligence develops in a young child. The most obvious emotional speech disorder is stuttering, which is often caused by anxiety. The speech therapist uses a program of speech exercise to reduce this disability. Where necessary, the aid of a psychologist is enlisted; in extreme cases, a psychiatrist assists with psychotherapy.

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Slide Rule, (Mathematics)

Slide Rule, mechanical device formerly used by engineers and scientists for rapid and approximate multiplication, division, extraction of roots, raising to powers, and other simple computations. The slide rule has been almost totally superseded by the small hand-held electronic calculator. The principle of the slide rule is the translation of all computations to equivalent additions or subtractions that can be carried out on a set of scales sliding over each other. Thus, two uniformly graduated marked scales can be used for addition or subtraction as shown in Fig. 1 for 2 + 4 = 6. If 2 and 3 are to be multiplied, it follows from the definition of logarithm that log 2 + log 3 = log 6. Accordingly, a scale which is laid out logarithmically (Fig. 2) can be used to add (or subtract) logarithms and therefore to multiply or divide. Powers or roots (fractional powers) can be represented on a set of scales by a further extension of logarithms. Thus, 42 = 16 becomes 2 × log 4 = log 16. If the logarithm is taken once more, log 2 + log (log 4) = log (log 16). Thus, the combination of the normal (logarithmic) slide-rule scale with a so-called log-log scale leads to the evaluation of powers and roots. Other scales, such as for sine, cosine, and tangent, and logarithm and for calculations involving p (pi) are also found on the usual rectilinear slide rule. This consists of an upper and lower fixed part with various imprinted scales and a movable center slide on which further scales are given (see illustration). A glass runner or cursor with a finely engraved vertical line is provided for easier alignment of the scales.
The computational accuracy possible depends on the size of the slide rule and on the care with which the scales are printed. The commonly used 10-in. slide rule permits multiplications and divisions to be made with an accuracy of about 1/10th percent, which suffices for many engineering calculations. Both the rectilinear and the less commonly used circular slide rule were invented by the English mathematician William Oughtred shortly after the discovery of logarithms. Various special slide rules have been devised for the solution of widely applicable engineering formulas, or for business calculations, such as the determination of interest, compound interest accumulation, and depreciation.

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Facts and Figures About Costa Rica,(History of Costa Rica)

Costa Rica, republic in southern Central America, bounded on the north by Nicaragua, on the east by the Caribbean Sea, on the southeast by Panama, and on the southwest and west by the Pacific Ocean. The uninhabited and densely wooded tropical Cocos Island, about 480 km (about 300 mi) to the southwest in the Pacific Ocean, is under Costa Rican sovereignty. The total area of Costa Rica is 51,060 sq km (19,714 sq mi). The country’s capital is San José.

II  LAND AND RESOURCES

 Most of Costa Rica is rugged highlands, about 900 to 1,800 m (about 3,000 to 6,000 ft) above sea level. Several mountain ranges extend nearly the entire length of the country. These include the Cordillera de Talamanca, Cordillera Central, and Cordillera de Guanacaste. The highest peaks are Chirripó Grande (3,819 m/12,530 ft) and the active volcano of Irazú (3,432 m/ 11,260 ft). A central plateau, the Meseta Central, is located between the ranges and contains the bulk of the population. Wide lowlands extend along the almost unindented Caribbean coast. The lowlands along the Pacific are narrower. Here the coast is broken by a number of bays, the chief ones being the landlocked Gulf of Nicoya, the deep, open Gulf of Dulce, and Coronado Bay. The principal stream of Costa Rica is the San Juan River, which forms part of the country’s boundary with Nicaragua to the north.

A  Climate 

The climate of Costa Rica ranges from tropical on the coastal plains to temperate in the interior highlands. Average annual temperatures range from 31.7°C (89°F) on the coast to 16.7°C (62°F) inland. A rainy season lasts from April or May to December. Annual precipitation in the country averages about 3,000 to 3,500 millimeters (120 to 140 inches).

B  Natural Resources

Good agricultural soils in Costa Rica are concentrated in the Meseta Central and in the river valleys. About one-third of the total land area is covered by forest, much of which is commercially productive. Mineral resources, including bauxite, are believed to be extensive but remain largely undeveloped. Fishing for tuna, sharks, and turtles is carried out along the coast. Waterpower is abundant and is used to generate electricity for industrial operations.

C  Plants and Animals
Costa Rica’s forests contain rich stands of ebony, balsa, mahogany, and cedar. More than 1,000 species of orchids are found in Costa Rica. Wildlife is abundant and includes puma, jaguar, deer, monkeys, and 600 species of birds.

D  Environmental Issues
Costa Rica’s land is protected by one of the most ambitious conservation programs in Central America. Costa Rica was one of the first, and most active, countries to participate in debt-for-nature swaps, which cancel some national debt in exchange for the protection of a specified amount of land from environmental degradation. In an effort to bolster its economy while remaining responsible to the environment, Costa Rica has also established a booming ecotourism business. This form of tourism encourages travelers to learn more about the country’s natural wonders and to respect the environment in the course of their exploration.

Despite Costa Rica’s efforts to protect its valuable forest resources, much of what lies outside the country’s protected reserves is subject to deforestation. Land is cleared for cattle ranching and for harvesting valuable tropical timber for export. In addition, because some of Costa Rica’s protected lands are privately owned, their protection from future deforestation is not guaranteed. Deforestation places Costa Rica’s rich biodiversity in danger. The country’s location on the cusp between North and South America and its abundance of tropical forests make it home to a great variety of species, many of them rare and threatened. Deforestation also contributes to the country’s problematic rate of soil erosion.

Costa Rica is party to international treaties concerning biodiversity, climate change, endangered species, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, and wetlands.

III  POPULATION

A majority of the people of Costa Rica are of European (largely Spanish) descent. Whites and mestizos (people of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry) account for about 96 percent of the population; the small black community is largely of Jamaican origin. About 50 percent of the population is defined as rural. Spanish is the official language, but English is also spoken by many educated people and some of the ethnic Jamaicans. Roman Catholicism is the state religion, but freedom of worship is guaranteed by the constitution.

A  Population Characteristics
The population of Costa Rica (2004 estimate) is 3,956,507, giving the country an overall population density of 78 persons per sq km (202 per sq mi).

B  Political Divisions
Costa Rica is divided into seven provinces: San José, Alajuela, Cartago, Puntarenas, Guanacaste, Heredia, and Limón. Each of the provinces has a governor appointed by the president.

C  Principal Cities
The capital is San José, with an estimated population in 2000 of 309,672. Important cities are Puerto Limón (84,986), a trading center and one of the country’s principal ports; Puntarenas (102,504), a major Pacific seaport; and Alajuela (222,853), a center for the production of coffee and sugar.

D  Education

Costa Rica has one of the highest rates of literacy in Latin America, estimated at 96 percent. Primary and secondary education is free, and attendance is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 15. In 2000, 551,465 pupils were enrolled in 3,711 primary schools and 255,600 students attended public and private secondary schools. The prominent University of Costa Rica, in San José, was founded in 1843, and has an annual enrollment of about 29,000.

E  Culture

Costa Rica, with a relatively small Native American population, has been strongly influenced by the culture and traditions of Spain. Native American and African American influences have had relatively little impact. The Roman Catholic cultural pattern of Spain, with emphasis on the family and the church, has evolved into a national style of life. Festivals in honor of patron saints are a colorful part of village and town life. The guitar, accordion, and mandolin have traditionally been the most popular musical instruments, and the music reflects a Spanish heritage. Traces of the Native American culture survive in designs used in jewelry, leather goods, and clothing. The national sport is soccer.

IV  ECONOMY

The economy of Costa Rica remains basically agricultural, although manufacturing industries have been expanding since the early 1960s. In an effort to introduce economic diversity, more emphasis has been given to the raising of livestock. Overall living conditions are high by Latin American standards, and the country has a large middle class. Between 1970 and 1987, Costa Rica received about $1.2 billion in loans and grants from the United States. In 2001 annual budget figures showed revenues of $ 3.6 billion and expenditures of $ 3.9 billion.

A  Agriculture

Some 10.3 percent of Costa Rica’s land area is under cultivation or used for plantation agriculture. Apart from banana plantations, most of the agricultural landholdings are small. Coffee, one of the most valuable crops, is cultivated mainly in the central plateaus. In 2003, 132,000 metric tons of coffee was produced. Bananas are raised in the tropical coastal regions on plantations. In the late 19th and early 20th century a United States firm, the United Fruit Company (now United Brands), opened the largest banana plantation in the world on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and constructed the ports of Quepos and Golfito as banana-shipping points. Cacao, sugarcane, and pineapples are also raised primarily for export. Corn, rice, vegetables, tobacco, and cotton are generally cultivated throughout the country. In 2003 livestock included 1.2 million cattle, 500,000 hogs, and 115,000 horses.

B  Mining and Manufacturing

Gold and silver are mined in the western part of Costa Rica. Deposits of manganese, nickel, mercury, and sulfur are largely unworked. Petroleum deposits have been found in the south, but not exploited. Salt is produced from seawater.

Most of the country’s industry is of small-scale enterprises such as coffee-drying plants, cheese factories, sawmills, woodworking factories, breweries, and distilleries. Costa Rica has factories that produce petroleum products, furniture, paper, textiles, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, plastics, candles, boots, and cigars and cigarettes. Costa Rica produced 6.8 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity in 2001; 82 percent of the power was generated in hydroelectric facilities.

C  Currency and Foreign Trade

The unit of currency is the colón, consisting of 100 centimos (359.82 colones equal U.S.$1; 2002 estimate). The Banco Central, established in 1950, is the bank of issue and administers foreign reserves. In 2002 the value of imports was $6.9 billion and of exports, $5 billion. The chief exports included coffee, bananas, beef, textiles, and sugar. Principal imports were manufactured goods, machinery, transportation equipment, chemicals, crude petroleum, and foodstuffs. Chief purchasers of exports are the United States, Germany, Italy, Guatemala, El Salvador, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and France. Leading suppliers of imports were the United States, Japan, Mexico, and Guatemala. The entry in 1963 of Costa Rica into the Central American Common Market brought about major increases in trade in that region although its importance has since waned. In 1995 Costa Rica joined in the formation of the Association of Caribbean States (ACS). A free-trade organization, the ACS comprises the members of the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) as well as 12 Latin nations bordering the Caribbean.

D  Transportation

Railroad lines in Costa Rica total 424 km (263 mi) and link San José with both coasts. Roads total 35,881 km (22,295 mi); some 680 km (some 425 mi) of roadway forms a portion of the Inter-American Highway. San José is linked by road with the cities of the surrounding plateau region. Several domestic airlines provide service within the country. Juan Santamaría Airport, which is located near San José, is served by the Costa Rican national airline and several foreign airlines.

E  Communications

In 2001 Costa Rica had 8 daily newspapers. There were 3,045 radio receivers and 930 televisions for every 1,000 residents. In 2002 Costa Rica had 251 telephone mainlines for every 1,000 people.

F  Labor
Agriculture employs 16 percent of the labor force while industry employs 23 percent. The remainder was employed in the public and private service sectors. Labor unions are relatively weak in Costa Rica.

V  GOVERNMENT

Costa Rica is a republic governed under a constitution of 1949.

A  Executive

Executive power is vested in a president and two vice presidents, each of whom is elected by direct popular vote for single four-year terms. Each candidate must receive more than 40 percent of the total vote. Voting is compulsory for all citizens over 18 years of age. The president is assisted by a cabinet of some 20 ministers.

B  Legislature

Legislative power in Costa Rica is vested in a single-chamber Legislative Assembly, with 57 deputies, elected for four-year terms.

C  Political Parties

The leading political groups in Costa Rica are the National Liberation Party (Partido de Liberación Nacional, or PLN), a reformist organization, and the Social Christian Unity Party.

D  Judiciary

Judicial power in Costa Rica is vested in a Supreme Court, appellate courts, a court of cassation (highest appeals court), and subordinate provincial courts. Capital punishment has been banned.

E  Social Services

The average life expectancy in Costa Rica is 77 years, the highest in the western hemisphere. A national health plan was established in the 1970s. Health services are concentrated in urban areas. A social security program has been in operation since 1942, with participation compulsory for all employees under 65 years of age.

F  Defense

Costa Rica has had no armed forces since 1948, when the PLN came to power and abolished the army. The only security forces are the 4,500-member Civil Guard and the 3,200-member Rural Guard.

VI  HISTORY
Human habitation of Costa Rica dates from at least 5000 bc, but in comparison with the great civilizations of pre-Columbian America the Native Americans of Costa Rica were neither numerous nor highly developed. When confronted by Spanish soldiers and missionaries, they resisted violently. Those who did not succumb to the epidemics that swept over the isthmus either died fighting or fled to remote areas.

A  The Colonial Period

Christopher Columbus sailed along Costa Rica’s Caribbean shore in 1502 and gave it its name (“rich coast”). Spanish conquest, however, came later than in most of the rest of Central America, delayed by the hostility of the natives and the absence of obvious wealth. After Juan de Cavallón led the first successful colonizers into Costa Rica in 1561, Juan Vásquez de Coronado followed from 1562 to 1565 with the establishment of Cartago and other settlements in the central valley, where most of the population is still concentrated. Within the kingdom of Guatemala (in the viceroyalty of Mexico, called New Spain) from 1570 forward, Costa Rica was principally a small dependency of Nicaragua throughout its colonial period. Such circumstances as its remoteness from Guatemala City and its lack of wealth allowed it to develop with less direct interference and regulation than the other provinces of Central America. Costa Rica’s relative obscurity gave it some of its unique characteristics. The Europeans were unable to subjugate a sedentary native population, nor could they afford to import African slaves, as was done in areas of more apparent commercial agricultural or mining potential. Costa Ricans consequently turned to subsistence farming on small land grants, without the extremes of wealth and poverty that characterized so much of Latin America. Government and church officials were fewer than in the centers of authority and production. Thus, Costa Rica played only a minor role in the kingdom of Guatemala, and it developed to a large degree apart from the mainstream of Latin American history. It was first in the late 18th century, when Spanish emphasis on commercial agriculture led to the growth of tobacco as a major export, that the colony became of some importance to the Guatemalan authorities.